Criticizing and Resistence of Science Today Essay

In the twentieth century, the constant alternating effects of science resulted in substantial concern for countless groups of people such as Socialists who felt that science at present wasn’t receptive to the requirements of human beings, Conservatives anxious on the attempt of science to disregard conventional establishments and radical feminists enraged due to the manner in which women are observed in science, additionally, religious believers concerned at the way the foundations of their beliefs being tarnished as irrelevant by science as well as environmental activists who argue that science has caused incredible amounts of damage to habitats around the world as well as contributing to the effects of global warming. From this, it is†¦show more content†¦The incident motivated thousands of people in the region to participate in the act of tree hugging in order to save their forests. After 7 years, the movement had stretched and extended all the way through India which resulted in the arrangement of an insightful communal set of forest rules and guidelines that ended the open felling of trees. (Shiva, 1989) However, deforestation or open tree felling is not always necessarily problematic. For instance, it gives room for grazing land and land for crops, it helps the transportation of a valuable material, such as oil, it gives many people, who would otherwise be jobless, employment, which in turn increases their standard of life, it provides room for things such as offices, hospitals, schools and other facilities, which supports the community, and also the use of lumber products which are utilized for table making, paper etc. (Peet and Watts, 2004) Nevertheless, a study was conducted of just fewer than 300 cities in Brazil surrounding the borders of the Amazon rain forest, measuring their levels of development before and after deforestation. Researchers concluded that deforesting the land and turning it into agriculture initially raised development levels, however, years later the levels of

Essay on The Medias Influence on Teenage Suicide

The Medias Influence on Teenage Suicide Fiction: Only â€Å"bad† kids who have the wrong friends and bad lives commit suicide. Fact: Kids who have the right friends and a bright future in front of them commit suicide. Fiction: Music, movies, and other forms of media do not influence teenagers in any way, shape, or form. Fact: Music, movies, and other forms of media are influencing teenagers to commit suicide. Teenage suicide is on the rise at an alarming rate. While depression and other social pressures play a significant role in suicide among teenagers, there is evidence showing that music, movies, and other ways the media portrays suicide as glamorous and noble is having a major influence on teenagers considering suicide.†¦show more content†¦These causes can vary from depression to drugs to school and family pressures. According to Francine Klagsburn in her book, Too Young to Die, â€Å"No single cause can explain all suicides. Suicide is such a complex matter that it involves every aspect of life.† (121) Anthropologist Edward Westermark was of the same thinking and found there are many motives including disappointed love or jealousy, illness, death of a loved one, shame, pride, anger and revenge (Choron 10). A 1986 government survey attempted to answer the question, â€Å"Is there something different [today] about the sense of despair, the sense of hopelessnessâ € ¦that youngsters feel suicide is a reasonable solution?† (Klagburn, 12) The survey asked experts in suicide research and prevention to list the characteristics of youth at risk of committing suicide. â€Å"Half of the respondents cited family conflicts, more than one-third mentioned physical or sexual abuse, and 17 percent named alcohol or drug abuse† (Worsnop 372). David C. Clark, director of Chicago’s Center for Suicide Research and Prevention, was also quoted, citing some of the suicide triggers of an at risk teen: In the vast majority of cases, they say, there is an underlying mental illness that is responsible for suicide. Clark estimates that about 25 percent of youth suicides are due to depression, 25 percent to alcohol or drug abuse and about 40 percent fall into the category of conduct disorder, which involves a longShow MoreRelatedMedia s Effect On Teens986 Words   |  4 PagesCenters for disease control and prevention (CDC), the suicide rate is currently the third largest leading causes of death among teenagers, and the numbers are growing day by day. Media’s contribution to this upward trend of suicide may be debatable, but we can’t deny the influence of television commercials on teens. Through false advertisements, unrealistic standard of beauty, and social norms, Media is fueling a national epidemic of teen suicide. Despite its downside, Mass Media is widely consideredRead MoreIdealized Body and Social Media964 Words   |  4 Pageshalf of the advertisements using beauty as an appeal to sell their products(Teen Health and the Media), the pressures to be perfect are causing women to become dissatisfied with their looks, driving them to turn to unhealthy measures. The average teenage girl gets a significantly greater amount of media time each day compared to the amount of time they spend with their parents, this is usually around 180 minutes of media per ten minutes spent with their parents (Heubeck). With so much time spent onRead MoreYouth Suicide in Australia: A Report Essay755 Words   |  4 Pageshas done enough to prevent youth suicide by showing the background and social significance of the issue. Furthermore, the participants involved and their controversial opinions related to the issue will be analyzed in this report as well. 2. The issue and the Background to the Issue Since the mid to late 1990’s, youth suicide has become a common cause of death for young Australians (Carter 2010 para. 1). The government then acted and managed to reduce the suicide rate, which was a success (CarterRead MoreTeenage Pregnancy : More And More Teenagers Are Becoming Pregnant Nowadays?1487 Words   |  6 PagesAnnamarie Harrell English II Honors Ms. Vandeusen April 13, 2013 Teenage Pregnancy More and more teenagers are becoming pregnant nowadays. Could it be because of the multiple television shows they could be watching about Teenage Pregnancy glamorizing the idea? Is the media suggesting to young adults that it is okay to be pregnant at a young age? Throughout the years, teenage pregnancy rates have increased due to the influence of mass media and the peer pressure teenagers are faced with every day;Read MoreEssay about The Media’s Effect on Adolescent Bodies 1725 Words   |  7 PagesThe Media’s Effect on Adolescent Bodies The stringent standard Barbie-doll proportions of body image and what is considered beautiful in today’s media has resulted in devastating effects on adolescent women. The images displayed of women who have long beautiful legs, thin waist lines and smooth flawless skin are very hard to ignore. Throughout history the female body has been on display as a selling tool to coerce people into buying that new fancy car or the latest new appliance that can makeRead MoreThink Of A Beautiful, Ten-Year-Old Girl Standing In The1281 Words   |  6 Pageshave to have a â€Å"perfect body.† This is caused by the way people idolize models such as Gigi Hadid, Kendall Jenner, and Heidi Klum. Society tells us that women should be tall, blonde hair with blue eyes, and have either big breasts or be curvy. The media’s view of the â€Å"perfect body† pressures women into thinking they have to starve themselves, work out until they puke, and receive plastic surgery to gain the i deal body. All of these burdens causes women to acquire mental disorders, eating disordersRead MoreSchool Shootings : Research, Theory, And Policy1341 Words   |  6 Pagesfor all. Suicide by mass murder: Masculinity, aggrieved entitlement, and rampage school shootings Rachel Kalish and Michael Kimmel Kalish, R., Kimmel, M. (2010). Suicide by mass murder: Masculinity, aggrieved entitlement, and rampage school shootings. Health Sociology Review, 19(4), 451- 464. 1. Suicide by Mass Murder: Masculinity, Aggrieved Entitlement, and Rampage School Shootings by Rachel Kalish and Michael Kimmel investigates three recent acts of school shootings ending in suicide in an attemptRead MoreEssay on Goth: A Satirical Subculture1126 Words   |  5 Pagessociety attitude. As time passed, this attitude transformed into more of a â€Å"no more blind acceptance of societal values† instead of rejection for its own sake. The first use of the term Gothic is often up for debate, and many would cite the medias description of the music of the Doors or Diamond Dogs by David Bowie. However, the Gothic community, by and large, accepts that the term originally described the music of Siouxie and the Banshees or Joy Division by their manager. The first dateableRead MoreHow The Media Influences An Individual1817 Words   |  8 Pagesâ€Å"How the Media Influences an Individuals’ Sense of Self†   Ã¢â‚¬Å"Mirror,  mirror on the  wall who s the fairest of them all† (Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs,  1937). Most people are familiar  with this quote from  Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs,  which illustrates simply an issue facing women today. Much like the movie -the evil queen sees Snow White in the mirror- people never see themselves in the mirror;  people project what they want to  be  and critique every inch of themselves.  The American culture hasRead MoreMusic Preferences957 Words   |  4 PagesWhat physiological, psychological and social factors influence our  musical preferences? Music refers to the art or science of combining vocal or instrumental sounds (or both) to produce beauty of form, harmony, and expression of emotion; however individuals differ in their preference of music. Development studies estimate that the auditory system of a foetus is fully functioning at around 20 weeks of pregnancy; at this point the foetus is able to the mother’s heartbeat and is able to recognise

Company Introduction, Market Segmentation Free Essays

Market Segmentation, and Product Positioning Keenan Pierson Dry. Steven Englander Marketing October 28, 2013 A. The Company Smart Option e-cigarette Is a metal rechargeable electric cigarette brand, Glenn smokers an alternative smoking option to conventional tobacco products. We will write a custom essay sample on Company Introduction, Market Segmentation or any similar topic only for you Order Now Smart Option takes pride in putting an emphasis on making its e-cigarette as close as possible to the weight, size, feel, flavor and inhalation of real cigarettes. Targeting seasoned smokers, Smart Option e-cigarettes produce non-disposable smoking products. The Smart Option e-cigarette kit comes with an atomized plus a cartridge tit a flavor enhancer. Consumers enjoy the brand’s option of varied flavor enhancers but is popular, more so, because Smart Option Is known for its longer- lasting batteries. Popular, trendy and well-established, the Smart Option brand desires to expand to Include the Smarts compatible rechargeable cartridges and chargers. Smart Option was established In 2010 and Is headquartered In Atlanta. Keenan Pierson Is the SSP of Product Development, spearheading the brand’s technological advance. Smart option’s strategic mission statement Is â€Å"To provide a great price for the sophisticated smoker, focusing on quality and increased accessibility. † Foreign Market Cigarette use is the largest segment of the tobacco market In Russia, accounting for 98 percent of the market’s total value (Russia, 2013). E-cigarette use in Russia is a means for controlling smoking (â€Å"Popularity,† 2011), and its popularity is growing there as well. Smart Option consumers primarily are based in the United States, but Smart Option sees an opportunity to expand the brand as it prepares to launch the Smarts component. Currently, the majority of electric cigarettes enter the Russian market from China (Research and Markets, 2012). Increasing exports will help grow the brand. With Smarts compatible rechargeable cartridges and chargers, the goal Is to pioneer and capture significant market share through a sense of necessity from consumers in the U. S. And abroad, creating brand loyalty. B. Marketing Plan smoker. It has the look of classic cigarettes with an excellent nicotine delivery system. Consumers enjoy its variety of forms, its battery life and ease of use. The Smart Option e-cigarette brand is the solution for the long-term consumer seeking a premium product. While priced slightly higher than competitors selling disposable reduces, the Smart Option e-cigarette kit is equivalent to receiving up to three packs of conventional cigarettes above the standard two. Smarts compatible rechargeable cartridges and chargers will be for consumers looking for the longer investment in the e-cigarette. Smarts will provide the best and most technologically-advanced electronic cartridges and compatible chargers in the industry. All e-cigarette brands are battery operated. Presently, consumers of e-cigarettes have to be loyal to their brand because rechargeable cartridges and chargers are not versatile, meaning that chargeable cartridges are not compatible with each other. There are so many electric cigarettes available that it may be difficult – and expensive – for the consumer to determine which brand satisfies their tastes. The consumer also must find the store that sells their preferred brand. With Smart Option’s Smarts compatible rechargeable cartridges and chargers, consumers no longer have to commit. The product and the service component of the Smarts compatible rechargeable cartridges and chargers will drive sales. Smarts will be bundled with the existing Smart Option products and sold separately to attract users of competing eggs. Like most cartridges, the Smarts compatible rechargeable cartridges include miniature lithium batteries. Smarts is unique because its 4. -volts also contain a small universal adapter for compatibility with other brands, creating an â€Å"android† mechanism for use across all brands of e-cigarettes. A unique feature of the Smarts compatible rechargeable cartridges includes longer-life batteries, which has made Smart Option popular among consumers. As an enhancement, the Smarts battery will automatically go into standby mode when not in use to preserve its li fe. The product and the Smarts compatible rechargeable cartridges and chargers will be expensed through vending machines and will be widely available at gas stations and convenience stores. Consumers will see the cost savings over time, enjoying the versatility of the Smart compatible rechargeable cartridges and chargers, making the overall product and its service even more attractive. A report from the Centers of Disease Control and Prevention finds that one-fifth of Americans – about 46 million – are still smoking (â€Å"The Electric Cigarette,† 2010). Tobacco use is responsible for nearly 1 in 5 deaths in the United States (â€Å"AS Choice,† 2010). Users of conventional cigarette make are responding to the rise in health risk awareness, using e-cigarettes as a healthier alternative. Currently it is estimated that 1 in 40 smokers are now using e- cigarettes as an alternative (â€Å"The Electric Cigarette,† 2010), and the trend is growing at phenomenal speed. E-cigarettes have three basic components: a battery, an atomized and a mouthpiece cartridge. E-cigarettes deliver nicotine without the harmful toxins found in tobacco smoke yet creates the same hand-to-mouth experience. Instead of lighting up, an electric cigarette has a cartridge that resembles a filter that heats nicotine into a vapor. An LED light glows at the tip during the inhale, simulating the glowing tip of a regular cigarette. It is a safer alternative to smoking, and reduces secondhand smoke exposure since they do not produce smoke. E-cigarettes are sum, e-cigarettes are a smarter smoking solution. E-cigarette users are â€Å"vamping† rather than smoking. The sale of e-cigarettes is a niche business that is a growing segment of the tobacco industry, although no tobacco exists in eggs. Created in 2003 by a Chinese pharmacist, the segment is emerging, and it is estimated that about a million people used electric cigarettes (Seltzer, 2011). Word about the product is spreading as consumers are becoming educated about the dangers of tobacco use and about the availability of smoke-free alternatives. Increased accessibility and universality will help the industry continue to grow. The Smart Option e-cigarette tastes like a real cigarette and offers a variety of cigarette flavor enhancers, including a nicotine-free version. Smart Option focus groups revealed that consumers are attracted to the brand’s Smart LED and the option of purchasing higher capacity batteries but expressed frustration over their inability to use e-cigarettes interchangeably. Smart Option’s answer is a universal battery-operated rechargeable atomized cartridge and charger. Smarts compatible rechargeable cartridges and chargers will offer various charging options such as car chargers. Consumers have found problems with the taste and reliability in their search for the preferred e- cigarette. Neither cartridges nor chargers are interchangeable, making it difficult – and expensive – for the consumer to determine which brand satisfies their tastes. Smarts compatible rechargeable cartridges and chargers will provide consumers with a plethora of options and alternatives to enjoy the brand of their choice. No other brand or innovation currently exists to cater to e-cigarette users who want that versatility. There are different sizes of batteries in varying brands of e-cigarettes. The convenience and instant gratification of purchasing the Smart Option e-cigarette and/or purchasing the Smarts compatible rechargeable cartridges and charger is effective to drive growth and will strengthen market share. The Smarts compatible rechargeable cartridges and charger will come with a universal adapter, creating an â€Å"android† mechanism for use across all brands of e-cigarettes. Consumers also will enjoy the system’s longer-life rechargeable cartridges, eliminating the hassle of purchasing several devices in search of the desired taste and nicotine strength. Getting buy-in from the skeptical consumer will be a challenge to overcome since a weakness from competitors is weaker battery performances. The widespread smoking prohibition, not to mention the increase in taxes, and growing social stigma of conventional cigarette smoke creates opportunities for the e-cigarette market. Convenience stores have seen a reduction in retail sales, resulting in lower profit margins from selling conventional cigarettes. Unlike conventional cigarettes, tobacco taxes do not exist because there is not tobacco in the product, making it an affordable alternative for consumers. Electric cigarettes offer convenience stores lower taxes and much higher profit margins. Imposing additional cigarette-specific taxes on the sale of e-cigarette products would be a threat as it would lessen the number of consumers willing to buy the products. Smart Option e-cigarette brand is plentiful and diverse, and the goal is for the Smarts compatible rechargeable cartridges and chargers to be as well. Consumers experience a relaxing and licensable feeling with each Smart Option smoke that they perceive as positive and satisfying. The aim is to position the product and service as more than an e-cigarette this push will come in the form of heavy promotional spending. New technologically- savvy vending machines will be Smart Option’s way to sell the product, making it a standout brand. Each vending machine will have an online hub with up-to-date e- cigarette Smart Option brand information as an example of such marketing. APS accessible from smart mobile phones will support consumers’ need to get the latest reduce information, including GAPS capability to provide nearest locations. The Smart Option e-cigarette brand has a reliable website with an easy-to-use menu for online transactions by credit or debit. This will provide the best possible option for delivery for the Smarts compatible rechargeable cartridge and charger. Wide accessibility in brick-and-mortar stores such as gas stations, convenience stores, grocery stores, drug stores and big box retailers, will help diversify and increase sales distribution. Smart Option e-cigarette and the Smarts compatible rechargeable cartridges will be the best option for the lowest price possible. The brand and supporting devices will deliver more enriched quality and versatility to consumers. How to cite Company Introduction, Market Segmentation, Papers

Smart-Mart Strategic and Ethical Choices

Question: Describe the strategic and ethical choices specific to Smart Mart,Engage issues under conditions of strategy implementation and evaluation, Apply relevant tools and techniques of strategic analysis for Smart Mart, Justify or substantiate strategic choices, decisions, or intent, and Recommend a course of action for Smart Mart. Answer: Relevance of strategic and ethical choices Strategic planning has to be implemented after considering the ethical choices that will value the products and services that has been manufactured and sold by Smart-Mart. The management of the company specialises in the sales of the organic products, which is considered to be good for health and environment. The company has been pioneers in the manufacturing and sales of some of the best organic 2 products that was considered to be good for health. Smart-mart has been specialising in the production of the organic products for more than 6 years, and this makes the products quite valuable as compared to the others. However the challenge that the company faces at present is with the standards that has been set forth by the FDA and USDA associations that determines the quality of the products that is expected to be sold to the clients. As per the FDA rules the foods that has contains of additives and preservative contents are prohibited from the sales. It also includes foods that are ch emically processed to be sold to the potential buyers. The food that has been developed through genetic modification is also subject to strict check by the authorities. In the ethical practices, the companies are expected to follow the rules and standards that have been set forth by the food associations. This has to be done because the health association are more concerned with the quality of the products that are sold to the clients. Thus, the ethical factors are closely reviewed and the failures to the system are evaluated by the management in best possible manner. The ethical and quality leadership reports are closely reviewed by the stakeholders, clients, and the government agencies (Janesick, 2002). This has been done with an intention of checking the quality of the products that is intended to be sold to the clients. The message related to the ethical practices and choices has to be positive and conveyed in the best possible manner. Neutral and negative remarks about the quality of the products would usually have direct impact on the goodwill of the company. It has been stated that the consistence in the ethical behaviour performed by the company cannot be by chance. In other words, the ethical behaviour of the company has to be planned and implemented by the management in an effective manner. Apart from this, it has to be analysed and evaluated on a timely manner. This will help in increase the sales and productivity for the organization. Both the factors are quite important as this will help in serving maximum number of clients, without compromising with the quality of the services. the ethical behaviour and the choices has to be created by the organization as this will help in developing and implementing the right type of strategies that will be useful in increasing the goodwill for the organization. In this method, the value and the customer perspective has to be decided and the same needs to be communicated with the members. This will help in approaching maximum number of client, and achieve the business objectives (Johnson, John Altheide, 2002). Smart-Mart had created a label through which the price and the quality of the products surpassed from the offerings that was provided by the rival companies. In this process, the company had used the label was allowed to be used by many suppliers that included farmers. This was one of the reasons; the company had encouraged many users, including farmers to adopt the practices that were organic in nature. However this process reduced the cost of the products and the prices were quoted at a lower price, as compared to the rival companies. In this case, different product lines that was not immune to the different trends that were used for producing the goods and products. Such a process had in fact reduced the profit earning margin of the company, which was one of the major concerns for the management of the Smart-Mart (Lincoln, et al., 2004). In this case, the stakeholders and the managers had implemented effective strategies through which the sales and ethical choices could be increased. For this, the necessary changes were planned and implemented by the management. This was done with an intention of providing quality and reliable services to the clients, which was considered to be necessary for the successful business operational activities. Any wrong decision could actually affect the business performance and impact the customer relationship, which the services can be provided to the clients (McGinn et al., 2002). In other words, the company had adopted effective strategies through which the quality and ethical choices of the products and services were improved. Some of the steps that were taken by the management included The company had already specialised in the manufacturing of additives and carbon products. However, to increase the sales the management of the company had also taken care of the carbon footprints that was considered to be essential for preserving the nature or the environment. Through this method, an attempt was made to reduce on the carbon emission, which was one of the major concerns for the environmentalists. Many of the process that was followed by the company were patented. This was done with an intention of improving the quality of the products and owning the rights of the products that was exclusively sold by the company. In this method, the quantity of carbon that was emitted by the production of different products and services were analysed. This was done with an intention of estimating the loss that was basically occurred due to the production activities (Pring, 2002). Issues faced with the implementation of the process The issues that were associated with the implementation of the ethical strategies and choices for the company differed from each other. In this case, the challenges that are related to the implementation of the ethical process have to be analysed in an effective manner. For this the steps has to be decided and the same needs to be evaluated. It is quite important to ensure that the plan that has been chosen to be implemented is done in an effective manner. For this, the issue are analysed and the corrective steps are taken to implement the right process through which the changes in the system can be implemented. This is being done by understanding the ethical factors and the steps that needs to be followed for implementing the same for the benefits of the clients and the company. This is one of the tedious tasks and the right steps have to be taken to ensure that the accurate information is shared with the members. This is done by analysing the expectations or objectives of the compa ny and drafting the best possible policies through which the challenges and other issues are handled in an effective manner. For this the future objectives of the company is analysed and the standards that is expected to be followed for achieving the same is analysed. Both the factors are considered to be quite essential for drafting and implementing the right steps through which the changes can be implemented (Pritchard, 2002). Tools for strategic analysis The strategic analysis can be done in one of the below mentioned process Brand awareness - In this method, the company creates brand image that is considered to be quite important for the successful business operational activities. In this process, the company adopts effectives strategies for marketing the products and services that has been sold by the company. This is necessary for increasing the sales and goodwill of the company. Brand loyalty - for achieving this, the company follows an effective strategy through which the best services is being rendered to the clients. In this process, the quality of services and sales services that has been proposed to be rendered to the clients is decided. This is necessary for proving the best possible services to the buyers. In this method, it is essential to provide the right information to the clients as this will help in building positive relationship with the clients (Small, 2002). Sustainable strategy The company has adopted an effective strategy through which the quality of the services can be improved for the clients. In this method, the future plan needs to be differentiated and the right step needs to be taken for implementing the corrective steps. This will help in increasing the sales and goodwill for the company. In this process, the objective of the sustainable strategy has to be developed and implemented in the right manner (Tickle, 2002). Recommended changes In this process, the company needs to adopt and implement effective strategies through which the accurate information can be shared with the clients. This is one of the most important factors that will help in building positive and long term relationship with the clients. This is quite essential for the successful business operations. Apart from this, the ethical values has to be decided and the right steps needs to be taken for introducing the right steps through which the changes of improving the quality of services can be introduced by the company. References Janesick, V, 2002. Problems for qualitative researchers with Institutional Review Boards: A case study. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA. Johnson, John M. Altheide, D, 2002. Reflections on professional ethics. In Will C. van den Hoonaard Ed.),Walking the tightrope: Ethical issues for qualitative researchers(pp.59-69). Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Lee-Traweek, Geraldine Linkogle, Stephanie (Eds.) (2000).Danger in the field: Risk and ethics in social research. New York, NY: Routledge. Lincoln, Yvonna S. Tierney, William G. (2004). Qualitative research and institutional review boards.Qualitative Inquiry, 10, 219-234. McGinn, Michelle K.; Dunstan, Kate Faulkner, Veronica. (2002, April).Learning research methods through shared research activities. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association annual conference, New Orleans, LA.. Pring, R, 2002. The virtues and vices of an educational researcher. In Mike McNamee David Bridges (Eds.),The ethics of educational research(pp.111-127). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers. Pritchard, I, 2002. Travelers and trolls: Practitioner research and institutional review boards.Educational Researcher, 31(3), 3-13. Small, R, 2002. Codes are not enough: What philosophy can contribute to the ethics of educational research. In Mike McNamee David Bridges (Eds.),The ethics of educational research(pp.89-110). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers. Smythe, William E. Murray, Maureen J. (2000). Owning the story: Ethical considerations in narrative research.Ethics Behavior, 10, 311-336. Tickle, L, 2002. Opening windows, closing doors: Ethical dilemmas in educational action research. In Mike McNamee David Bridges (Eds.),The ethics of educational research(pp.41-57). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers. ONeill, 2003. Values into action. Retrieved from www.hbsworkingknowledge.hbs.edu/item.jhtml?id3159tcorporate_governance. Tyler, T. R. 2003. Creating an ethical climate in work organizations. Paper presented to the Northwest Ethics Network, Seattle. Tyler, T. R., Blader, S. 2003. Rule following in work settings. Paper presented at the Shrontz Lecture on Business Ethics at Seattle University. Weinberg, M, 2002. Biting the hand that feeds you, and other feminist dilemmas in fieldwork. In Will C. van den Hoonaard (Ed.),Walking the tightrope: Ethical issues for qualitative researchers(pp.79-94). Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.

Effect of Leadership and Power on Diversity Management Essay Example

Effect of Leadership and Power on Diversity Management Essay Leadership and Power Base Development: Using Power Effectively to Manage Diversity and Job-Related Interdependence in Complex Organizations Barton J. Michelson Mention the word power and what comes to mind? Power is evil, corrupt, self-serving, manipulative, hurtful, and possibly â€Å"America’s last dirty word. †1 These words speak to the dark side of power. There is, however, a positive face to addressing power acquisition, power-base development, and power use. The purpose of this article is to consider power as a positive force that is continually used to achieve organizational, group, and individual goals. When power is used in an ethical and purposeful way, there is nothing evil about it. This paper posits that leadership is the exercise of power; and, therefore, leaders must develop appropriate organizational power bases to use effectively their power to influence others. A power-base development model is constructed to show various deployments of power. This model establishes an interactive link between a leader’s power base and alternative influence strategies that produce positive power dynamics. The significance of this proposed model is that it accentuates the leadership role in developing positive organizational and interpersonal relationships that are predicated on the employment of certain known power bases in an organization. The power dynamics described in this model apply to all organizations regardless of size, goal, mission, technology, and so forth. The structure of the model is fashioned from a review of recognized and accepted literature on power theory, power-base formation, leadership, and organizational dynamics. The works of John Kotter, Rosabeth Moss Kanter, David A. We will write a custom essay sample on Effect of Leadership and Power on Diversity Management specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Effect of Leadership and Power on Diversity Management specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Effect of Leadership and Power on Diversity Management specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Whetton, and Kim S. Cameron were invaluable in constructing an expanded model that displays both the dependent and interdependent relationships considered critical to power acquisition, power transformations, power dynamics, and organization effectiveness. The model’s design will permit the reader to examine both positive and negative power outcomes and provide an accelerated dramatization of known power relationships in complex organizations. Leadership and Power Power obviously is a pervasive reality in the life process of all modern-day organizations. Leaders regularly acquire and use power to accomplish pecific work goals and to strengthen their own positions vis-a-vis the reading of general or organizational goals. It is possible to see every interaction and every social relationship in an organization as involving an exercise of power. 2 Thus, in the context of this paper, the word leadership will be used to mean â€Å"the process of using power to obtain interpersonal influence. †3 The question then arises, why must leaders achieve success at influencing the behavior of other people at work? Because, as Harry Truman succinctly stated, â€Å"Leadership is the ability to get men to do what they don’t want to do and like it. 4 In short, the core problem for leaders in any organization involves getting others to do what is required to accomplish the organization’s goals. 5 There are a number of other reasons to explain why leaders pursue power and view it as an important part of their work. In a general sense, power acquisition and power use can have an impact on career progress, on job performance, on organizational effectiveness, and on the lives of numerous people. 6 More specifically, the nature of work in today’s complex organizations requires that we become more enlightened with respect to issues of leadership, power, and influence. John Kotter, writing in Power and Influence Beyond Formal Authority, states: â€Å"We can make rigid bureaucracies more flexible, innovative, and adaptive. We can even make the world of work more exciting and personally satisfying for most people. †7 Kotter believes that in today’s complex organizations, the concept of using formal power (that is, legitimate authority) as a sole source of influencing behavior to make organizations more competitive, responsive, and responsible is outmoded. Leaders today work in socially intricate organizations where they need the assistance not only of subordinates but also of peers, superiors, and external parties to accomplish their goals. Accomplishing goals that positively impact the Dr. Barton J. Michelson is director of executive assessment and development and professor of leadership and management at the Air War College of Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama. He received a bachelor’s degree in international stud ies, a master’s in political science, and a doctorate in administration from Ohio State University. He is also a graduate from the Federal Aviation Administration Executive School. Dr. Michelson is a management and training consultant. This article was prepared especially for AU-24, Concepts for Air Force Leadership. 193 organization requires effective leadership linked to strong power bases and workable influence strategies. Building a strong power base and developing effective influence strategies to produce power dynamics is an important leadership challenge. abuses of influence? How do effective leaders sustain and maintain power over time? Power Acquisition The foundation of a strong power base starts with a leader’s individual power. As figure 5 indicates, leaders derive power from both position and personal sources. Power Acquisition Transforming Power The Leadership Challenge The social milieu of large and complex organizations can be characterized as highly diverse, highly interdependent, and rich in opportunities to generate power dynamics. The first characteristic, diversity, pertains to differences among organization members with respect to goals, values, outcomes, assumptions, and perceptions. Interdependence relates to the situation in which multiple actors have power over each other due to job-related interdependence. In the literature, for instance, Kotter summarizes the logic of how high levels of diversity and interdependence set the stage for power acquisition, power base development, and the use of influence to create power dynamics. He writes . . . when a high degree of interdependence exists in the workplace, unilateral action is rarely possible. For all decisions of any significance, many people will be in a position to retard, block, or sabotage action because they have some power over the situation. Position Power †¢ Centrality †¢ Criticality †¢ Flexibility †¢ Visibility †¢ Relevance Developing Effective Influence Strategies Leader Power Leader Influence over Others He concludes by indicating: The greater the diversity, and the greater the interdependence the more differences of power there will be. Because of the interdependence, peopl e will not be able to resolve these differences either by edict or by walking away. As a result, high levels of diversity and interdependence in the workplace are quite naturally linked to conflicting opinions about action and thereby influence attempts to resolve that conflict. 0 Personal Power †¢ Knowledge/ †¢ Information †¢ Personal †¢ Attraction †¢ Effort Execution that Minimizes Resistance and Resentment Thus, the leadership challenge becomes one of making diversity and interdependence work for organizational success. Whether the organization is private or public not-for-profit, the challenge is similar. Figure 5. Leadership: The Exercise of Power Position Power Five key factors have the ability to foster power in a leadership position. Centrality, criticality, flexibility, visibility, and relevance stimulate power acquisition by horizontal expansion or maneuvering. The power potential is based on lateral relationships between positions and organization activities. Each factor is described in table 5. Acquiring or increasing leader position power happens when the key factors are used in the following manner:11 Centrality/Criticality. You secure a more central role in the work flow, influence the flow of information through you, structure elements of your job responsibilities in a unique way, expand your communication network both intra- and interorganizationally and maintain your office near the main traffic flow. Flexibility. You enrich your job by eliminating routine activities, increasing task variety, generating novel ideas, 194 Managing Diversity, Interdependence, and Power Dynamics The nature of the leadership challenge, therefore, is clear. High diversity and high job-related interdependence often produce conflict. Leaders cannot simply ignore the conflict; they must attempt to influence factors to resolve it. Managing conflict when its roots are buried deeply in complex diversity and job-related interdependence requires a sense of power and influence strategies that can only be skillfully developed. Once developed, one can produce effective and responsible power dynamics. The power that leaders need to produce these dynamics comes from numerous sources and multiple bases. Building such a power base is not easy. It takes time, energy, and management. Exactly how do effective leaders build a strong power base? How do effective leaders transform power into influence? What specific steps do effective leaders take to avoid Table 5 Factors Increasing Position Power Factor Centrality Criticality Flexibility Visibility Relevance Description Relationship between positions in a communication network Relationship between tasks performed in a work flow process Amount of discretion vested in a position Degree to which task performance is seen by influentials in the organization Relationship between a task and organizational priorities The first stage of our model leader power represents power at rest; the second stage transforms power into influence to achieve desired results. Influence involves securing the consent of others to assist, collaborate, and work with you in achieving an objective. 3 Influence also entails any act or potential activity that affects the behavior of another person, group, or set of organizational entities. 14 Transforming power into successful influence requires the development of an influence strategy that minimizes resistance, resentment, and potential abuse. A leader must maintain perspective in terms of targeting power t o achieve successful influence. Possessing a potentially strong power base to use power is worth little unless you are able to secure compliance, effort, and commitment from others. initiating innovative projects, getting involved at the outset of the ecision-making process, and avoiding standardized performance criteria for job success. Visibility. You increase the number of interactions you have with senior people, making important oral presentations, participating on problem-solving teams, publicizing accomplishments in the right places, and taking advantage of opportunities to enhance personal name recognition. Relevance. You have the opportunity to acquire or develop internal or external boundary-spanning roles. Boundary-spanning roles are defined as providing services and information to other work units, monitoring and assessing activities intra- and interorganizationally. Other areas that increase relevance relate to getting involved in decision making pertaining to priority goal setting and assuming a socialization role for new work-unit members. Personal Power Three personal attributes are associated with building personal power: knowledge/information, personal attraction, and effort. 12 These are the characteristics you bring to the organization. Knowledge and Information. Leader power can be increased through expertise acquired by possession of special knowledge and information. Access to key people and data sources also enhances power potential. Personal Attraction. Agreeable behavior, pleasant personality characteristics, and attractive personal appearance are referents that attract people to a leader. Effort. A leader’s capacity to demonstrate a high level of effort can be parlayed into increased expertise and personal attraction. Working hard on priority assignments may enhance visibility with superiors and set in motion other dynamics associated with position power. Developing Strategies of Influence There are numerous ways of exercising influence. Several studies suggest that influence strategies can be classified into three broad categories: retribution, reciprocity, and reason (table 6). 5 David Kipnis and others have developed several general strategies of leader influence. 16 They list the most to least popular strategies found in their three-nation study of managerial influence styles as shown in table 7. Another researcher, Gary A. Yuki, lists 11 forms of influence and a summary of leader and target-person requirements for each strategy. 17 Table 8 identifies the different forms of influence. The research on influence strategies indicates that each approach listed in the classifications has advantages and limitations. Effective leaders generally use combinations of various strategies for different purposes and under different conditions. The challenge of complex organization diversity and job-related interdependence requires a leader to select the proper influence strategy to produce positive power dynamics. Leaders should avoid the pitfall of overreliance on and overuse of a particular influence strategy. Excessive use of an influence strategy could lead to abuses of influence that may provoke resistance leading to diminished leader influence over time. It is important to maintain a balanced perception between the leader’s power and the target persons to be influenced. You do not want to place the target persons in the position of perceived helplessness or feeling abused, exploited, or manipulated against their will. Leaders should create power dynamics to secure the commitments necessary to achieve important organizational goals and objectives. Unbridled use of power and influence generally produce negative power dynamics that are self-defeating for all concerned. Positive power dynamics shown in figures 6 and 7 contribute to managing diversity and opportunities to cope with job-related interdependence. 18 195 Transforming Power Position power and personal power are the building blocks upon which a leader has the potential to use power. Table 6 Influence Strategies Category Rely on fear of retribution Involve norms of reciprocity Use persuasive arguments based on reason Indirect Approach Intimidation (demand) Ingratiation (obligation) Appeal to personal values (apply general principles) Direct Approach Coercion (threaten) Bargaining (exchange) Present facts (stress, immediate need) Source: David A. Whetten and Kim S. Cameron, Developing Managerial Skills (Glenview, Ill. Scott Foresman, 1984), 267. Table 7 Most-to-Least Popular Strategies Used in All Countries When Managers Influenced Superiors Most Popular to Least Popular Reason Coalition Friendliness Bargaining Assertiveness Higher Authority When Managers Influenced Subordinates Reason Assertiveness Friendliness Evaluation Bargaining High Authority Sanction Source: David Kipnis et al. â€Å"Patterns of Managerial Influence: Shotgun Managers, Tacticians, and Bystanders,† Organizational Dynamics 12, no. 3 (New York: American Management Association, 1984), 62. Table 8 Different Forms of Influence Form of Influence 1. Legitimate Request 2. Instrumental Compliance 3. Coercion 4. Rational Persuasion 5. Rational Faith 6. Inspirational Appeal 7. Indoctrination 8. Information Distortion 9. Situational Engineering 10. Personal Identification 11. Decision Identification Agent Requirements Legitimate Justification Control over Rewards; Credibility of Promise Control over Punishments; Credibility of Threat Insight; Technical Expertise; Credibility Technical Expertise; Credibility Insight into Values and Beliefs; Persuasive Ability Control of Social Situation; Relevant Skills Credibility as Information Source Control of Relevant Aspects of Situation Attractiveness, Charisma Willingness to Allow Participation; Relevant Skills Target Person Requirements Relevant Values Relevant Needs, Openness to Manipulation Fear, Openness to Intimidation Relevant Values and Need Low Expertise, Relevant Need; Trust of Agent Relevant Values and Beliefs Alienation, Relevant Needs Use of Information for Impression Formation and Decision Making Willingness to Accept Situation Admiration of Agent Desire to Participate; Goals Consistent with Agent Goals Positive Power Dynamics The proper selection and use of an influence strategy transforms leader influence into behavioral dynamics that produce inventive thinking, creative problem solving, and the develop196 ment of new prototypes, products, and services. Positive power dynamics enhances organization competitiveness, increases organization adaptability and responsiveness, and ultimately increases synergy under organization conditions of high diversity and job-related interdependence. Later, increases in organization synergy permit an organization to improve performance levels related to goal attainment and mission accomplishment. Thus, leader power and influence produce the dynamics that optimize results that in turn generate the greatest good for the greatest number of people. inate with entropy and the probable and eventual deterioration of the social fabric of the organization. 19 Organization Effectiveness The picture of organizational life depicted in our model of leader power and influence suggests a complex social environment of confrontation, struggle, manipulation, hostility, and battle. It also projects a fundamental reality found in contemporary complex organizations. The nature of work, work processes, goal setting, and decision making is grounded in high diversity and job-related interdependence. The achievement of organization effectiveness that then produces excellence is almost impossible without leader excellence. Excellence in leadership can be attributed to how effectively a leader acquires and exercises power to produce positive power dynamics that in turn impacts the organization over the long run. The social milieu described in figure 8 creates exciting challenges to the leader, who must constantly exercise power to produce organization excellence. The leader in this environment recognizes that excellence requires much more than Organizational Outcomes Negative Power Dynamics Figures 6 and 7 also indicate that leader influence can produce negative behavioral dynamics. This model confirms that power abuse is a reality in complex organizations of high diversity and job-related interdependence. Oftentimes leader influence simply fails or is used for personal self-aggrandizement. This kind of failure of leader power can lead to prolonged power struggles and intraorganizational/interorganizational warfare. Protracted power struggles, bureaucratic infighting, and parochial politics then produce myopic organization outcomes that increase inefficiency, elevate human/nonhuman costs, produce diminished innovative capabilities, and increase vertical and horizontal conflicts that culDynamics Positive Power Dynamics Inventive thinking Creative problem solving New prototypes products and services Enhanced competitiveness Increased adaptability and responsiveness Increased synergy Leader Influence Negative Power Dynamics Selfaggrandizement Power struggles Tunnel vision Intra/interorganizational conflict Increased inefficiency and costs Decreased innovative capacity Increased vertical and horizontal conflict Turned-off people Figure 6. Leadership: The Exercise of Power 197 Organization Dynamics Goal and Mission Accomplishment Effectiveness Organizational Excellence Positive Power Dynamics Increased Power Opportunities Organizational Outcomes Negative Power Dynamics Weakened and Unproductive Diversity and Job-Related Interdependence Diminished Power and Leader Effectiveness Figure 7. Leadership: The Exercise of Power technical competence. It demands a different context for managing social reality; and it necessitates power skills that can mobilize diverse people who are linked together through interdependence and a common need to pull together for meaningful purposes despite the many multiple countervailing forces working against that synergy. In conclusion, the presentation of this model suggests that if leaders are to cope and prosper under the conditions of high diversity and job-related interdependence, it is essential that they develop effective power bases and influence strategies to make social complexity work for them. Success translates into stronger power bases with greater opportunities to lead through the exercise of power. Power misuse and abuse consistently lead to heightened and unproductive diversity and strain job-related interdependence that results in counterproductive power struggles. The end result of negative power dynamics is a general diminished power-base opportunity and specifically leader ineffectiveness.

Development of the periodic table

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Reflecting on Needs in Nursing and Healthcare

Reflecting on Needs in Nursing and Healthcare The aim of this essay is to critically reflect on one academic and one practical learning need. This essay will reflect in relation with my professional development as a health care practitioner based on the identified needs. John’s (1995) model of reflection will be used as an aid to reflect on this assignment. The Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) PREP continuing professional development guidelines format will be implemented during this writing. Confidentiality of the ward and patient’s information will be maintained throughout this essay in line with the United Kingdom, Data Protection Act (1998) and NMC (2008) codes of conduct on confidentiality, therefore the patient will be referred to as Mark a pseudonyms during description of the scenario. My identified clinical need based on information gathered from the first placement of my third year has improved my communication structure during patient’s handover to all members of staff. Improving this need is significant to me because, communication during patient’s handover can be considered as a paramount aspect of nursing care. Dossey and Keegan (2013) supported this by expressing that effective communication must be enhanced in order for holistic intervention to take effect in nursing practice. I researched about my clinical need for about twenty hours on different databases including government policies prior to writing this essay. On arrival to the ward I was asked by my mentor to hand over Mark a surgical patient to the nurse, health care assistant and another student nurse. During handover, I wanted to be outstanding and impress the health professionals as well as passing the vital information. However, this left me more nervous which made me realised how much I was struggling to articulate my sentence due to lack of structure. Odom-Forren (2007) study analysed handover to be a real time process of passing essential patient’s information between care givers in order to ensure continuity and safety of the patient. The purpose of this article was outlined as the importance of using structure for standardizing patient’s hand over, this made me understand that I have not being able to deliver this during the handover of Mark due to lack of structure. Street et al (2011) research identified how application of structured standardised handover has displayed significant improvement during nurse’ s handover. Structured handover makes the process more concise, objective and relevant (Griffen, 2010). Popovich (2011) research, Novak (2012) and Fenton (2006) study discussed how Implementations of a handover tool assists in recognising changes in patient’s status more quickly. Structured handover allows the receiving nurse to ask question related to the patient status and promotes accountability between shifts (Laws, 2010) therefore there is correlation in the research regarding structured handover. This motivated me into questioning myself in regards to why I had felt the way I did, and thought perhaps this could be due to insufficient amount of handing over and gathering essential information prior to handover which has not enabled me in developing confidence when handing over. Forren (2007) study sample size only focuses on perianasthesia setting handover which made this study relevant to me as my placement was in the theatre. The study could have been more applicable in future if the sample size was extensive to other clinical area as recommended by Russell and Gregory (2003) that articulated that studies with small samples may help to identify theoretically provocative ideas that merit further research. Lilleyman (2004) described handover as the most perilous procedures in patient’s care, a communication hotspot it was articulated that errors such as misinformation can jeopardise patient’s safety and workflow. I realised how limited my nursing intervention was when it comes to handing over and how I have not being able to adopt a systematic approach during my communication with the nurses when handing over which can influence the quality of care I deliver while also limiting my personal nursing development. This does not comply with the PREP has outlined in the NMC. Manser and Foster (2011) research recognized the significance of effective handover communication as it is critical to patient’s safety and quality of care. This has empowered me in recognising that developing my limited structured communication and organising clear thought during handover has numerous amount of effect on patient’s safety during care. Meeting this essential need also acquainted me with compliance to government policies such as NHS outcome 2013/14 that sets out the vision of the white paper which encourages improvement in the care quality provided to patient such as reduced delayed care. The Quality and Outcomes Framework (QOF 2013) which is also a legal requirement by the care quality commission that focuses on increasing patient’s standardised safety, experience and outcome. A qualitative research conducted by Benham-Hutchins and Effken (2010) identifies insufficient amount of communication during handover can endanger patient’s care by causing communication breakdown which can also lead to mistakes such as drug error. This research was conducted in an acute setting, the researchers conducted the research by asking staff to describe the method used for handing over however one major drawback of this approach is the methodology of the research which appears to be ambiguous. The researchers failed to take into consideration whether the staff nurses will be totally honest in the method used during handover. As I have seen while out in practice that not all nurses follow the tools available for handover, a more appropriate method will be to observe the nurses during patient’s handover. An example of communication breakdown can also be identified as reported in the Francis inquiry (2009) where patient’s care was endangered. Understanding of this has enabled me in accepting how I was unknowingly limiting my patient’s care and the impact it has on my ability to perform to my full potential as a final year student nurse which can lead to delay patient’s care, poor quality, risk and mistakes. In also developing this practical need I will be able to provide an individualised handover based on patient’s need to all member of staffs rather than a broad overview of patients. NMC code of conduct (2008) expects nurses to treat patient as an individual and respect their dignity. Pertinent information will also be assimilated in order to provide continuity of care to my patient as acknowledged in Manias and Street, (2010) research. Development of this need will enable to me to provide adequate handover which shows my competency while also enabling me to be accountable for my actions in order to make informed decisions and provide seamless care as obligatory by the NMC code of conduct (2008). My communication skill during handover will also be improved as it shows my professional development which is a requirement for PREP. This is also authorised by the Joint Commission (2012) that emphasises that well organised communication is extremely central to patient’s safety as communication can be considered as one of the leading issues contributing to patient’s harm. Therefore they recommended in the national patient safety goals that effectiveness of communication should be improved among care givers. Organising my thoughts before handover will support me to work in accordance to the embracement of the 6Cs values of care, compassion, competence, communication, courage and commitment of the nursing practice. Reflecting on areas that I went wrong and the positive feedback received from my mentor has equipped me in feeling more confident while also promoting self-regulation of clinical reasoning and questioning prior to, after handover and also during any form of nursing intervention. Scott and Ely (2007) emphasised that, positive performance should also be considered in reflection. In eagerness to improve this need I started incorporating evidence based into my practice during handover through reading, making notes of the structure used by observing my mentor when she handed over. Situation, background, assessment, recommendation known as the (SBAR) was one of the tool I observed my mentor and other nurses using in practice. The application of this tool aided my handover process as the questions within the tool allowed me to focus on vital information and be concise. Using this tool also enabled me in spending less time on handover as the information needed for communication during handov er was gathered before handover. This action facilitated clarity, effective and assertiveness in my communication which made the task of handing over a lot more easily. Another tool that I used as a structure in providing effective handover is the modified early warning scores (MEWS) pathway. This pathway allowed me to identifying when a patient starts to deteriorate. in order for a patient’s deterioration to be passed on during handover as it was recommended on the chart that a patient with a MEWS score of four or more can be transferred within department as long this is communicated with the receiving department. The Mews chart enabled me to stand as an advocate in ensuring the patient’s care handed over to the other staff will not be compromised as I was able to document the exact figure of observation on the chart for monitoring while also maintaining patient’s continuity of care and safety. NMC code of conduct (2008) expressed, nurses to act as an advocate for those in their care, helping them to access relevant health and social care, information and support. Currie (2002) CUBAN was used to enhanced patient’s care d uring handover by adopting Confidentiality during handover, uninterrupted communication, brief and concise information, accurate and relevant need, and Name nurse would be me and my mentor as we were looking after the patient Based on the knowledge I have gained through research and in-depth reading of this need, I now have more detailed understanding of the effect the gap in my knowledge had on how I was limiting my patient’s care as I was missing pieces of important information. Now I can confidently apply the handover tools to practice which shows evidence based. This has changed my practice to improve the care I give on daily basis as indorsed by PREP. My identified academic need is critical thinking. The learning activity of this need took place over the first semester of my final year. The learning activity took me a week to gather all my feedbacks together from my entire previously submitted essay. After reading through my feedbacks in depth I realised how all my tutors have stated I need to apply critical thinking to my essays. Research on this academic need took me fifteen hours of gathering literatures to enhance my knowledge of this need in order to be able to critically analyse the need in accordance to my development. I have decided to elaborate on my academic need of critical thinking because Girot (2000) identified that in order for nurses to be safe, compassionate, competent and skilled practitioners must develop an aptitude of critical thinking. This made me realised how crucial it is for me to develop critical thinking as a nurse as it will assist me in identifying and challenging assumptions in practice and when writing my essays. McGloin (2007) research made me understand how I have not being reading widely to empower my ability of being able to think critically through development of arguments which has influenced my written work and care given to patient therefore limiting my personal development (PREP). Greetham (2008) also discussed how most student underused critical thinking whereas it is the most pertinent skill needed to improve academic writing. In meeting my academic need I am expecting to get better understanding of my work prior to writing my essay. Cotrell (2008) suggested that having a clear thought through reading widely about that specific area before writing the essay enables student to gain adequate result. This shows that low marks in my essays are impacted by my lack of reading and lack of appropriate preparation before writing my essays. The ability of not being able to source evidence based practice will also have an effect on my nursing care. Critical thinking will allow me as a student to prioritise my work load when writing essays and while also out in practice (Hutchfield and Standing, 2012). Prioritising work load also provides space to be able to review and edit work on different occasions (Davis et al, 2011). Having a critical thinking skill will influence my patient care as I would be able to apply the skill of reasoning and questioning into complex situation encountered in practice. The Department of he alth (2010) also encourages critical thinking as it is a feature that is needed to be an advanced professional practice which is also required. Whiffin and Hasselder (2013) Research paper discussed how critical thinking is one of the characteristics that should be possessed by registered practitioners who owes the duty of providing critical solutions to problems that are complex. Gopee (2002) discussed that health care practitioners and student nurses applies critical thinking skill in their day to day practice whether they undertake the degree level or diploma programme but finds it difficult to transfer it into writing. Chan (2013) discussed how all nursing students can be considered as critical thinkers due to relating theory of what is learnt in class into practice. Hicks (2001) suggested that critical thinking can be developed through experience that involves undertaken complexity activity. Lauder and James (2001) study analysed that there are no significant differences for graduate and non-graduate student when it comes to critical thinking which nicely correlate with Gopee (2002). Understanding of this and having read through different research on what critical thinking is has enabled me to understand what the term critical thinking is. This made me recognise this is a skill I have been applying into my practice unknowingly which I have developed through series of placement but I have not being able to apply it thorough into my academic essay. For example in practice I was told by my mentor that we needed to trial without catheter (TWOC) a patient, this made me question why we were taken this action earlier than usual, whether it was documented by the Doctors, if the patient has been informed and what the after plans were. Reflecting back made me understand this action can be considered as being critical to maintain efficient care. However Girot (2000) research causes lack of consensus by articulating that graduate nursing students possessed greater care planning and decision making skills than non-graduate nursing students. Development of my need connect more with Gopee(2002), Lauder and James (2001) because not all nurses seen in practice undertook the degree program but they are still able to apply critical thinking into the daily nursing activities. Critical thinking will enable me to have the characteristics of a critical thinker while making me accountable for my actions and provide quality nursing care as recommended by Scheffer and Rubenfield (2000) that analysed critical thinkers in nursing exhibit habits of confidence, contextual perspective, flexibility, inquisitiveness, open mindedness and reflection. In realising this it made me understand development of this need has huge impact on my nursing profession as it essential for me to examine every underlying assumption. Critical thinking will result in me providing higher quality of care as I will be able to meet the need and concerns of my patient which is required by the care quality commission. In meeting this need I will be able to consider alternatives, preferences and question any uncertainty. Booth (2008) discussed practitioners must sought after the best available tool to reach the best available decision when providing nursing intervention. In order to impact my pa tient with positive experience, maintain safety and deliver positive outcome I will need to apply my critical thinking skill by assessing the best practice for my patient through autonomously holistic care. Profetto-McGrath (2005) and Scheffer and Rubenfield (2000) discussed how critical thinking improves patients outcome through evidence based practice. Gadamer (2000) research discussed how critical thinking enable nurses to develop as an expert through knowledge and proficiency stage as this allows the nurse to move from being task orientated towards patient specific care and need. This academic need has been limiting my development because awareness of this has made me gathered how much I could have been task orientated in my essays and nursing intervention in order to get the task done rather than reading and seeking for ways to provide an expertise care and work. Chan (2013) study made me realise reading widely is encouraged as it assist student to develop more sophisticated fo rm of reasoning which make complex problems a lot more easier to deal with. This need has a huge impact on my nursing development because appliance of critical thinking enables me to provide quality essay through informed research and also provide safe evidence based care through clinical judgement by finding and applying guidelines in practice (Young, 2004). Critical thinking will enhance my professional development by enabling me to seek out the truth by actively exploring a problem or situation. It will also facilitate me to provide adequate patient centred nursing assessment and intervention while also acting as an advocate for my patient. Development of critical thinking reflects my competency as this is one of the expectations of the NMC code of conduct (2008) and National Institute of health and care excellence (2010) laid emphasised are laid on the importance of critical thinking in nursing practice to perform higher care (Chang et al 2011). Development of this truth seeking need can also leave an impression on my colleagues to strive for the best pr actice available hence influencing the work environment positively which has a great impact on patient’s experience as covered in Chan (2013). Applying critical thinking into my essays has enabled me to be more analytical when using research as evidence to back up points in my writing. Critical thinking has assisted me in planning efficiently before conducting my academic work for example I had to utilise this skill when it came to selecting the best literature to critique and analyse my work prior to writing. Price and Harrington (2010) discussed one of the components of successful academic writing is thorough preparation and through planning. As critical thinking is an on-going skill I will continue applying it to my learning and practice by reading more. Critical thinking can be considered as a key ingredient to lifelong learning that characterizes personal growth and development through experience and practice (Banning, 2006). In conclusion development of these needs has influenced my knowledge and ability of being able to provide evidence based practice into my patient’s care. It has also impacted my academic work by enabling me to question the validity of research before applying it to my essay.

Self and Other: The Scarlet Letter :: essays research papers

With his critical essay: "Hawthorne's Awakening in the Customhouse" Loving gives the reader a psychoanalytical reading of The Scarlet Letter. Loving pays close attention to Hawthorne's unconscious motives and feelings in his interpretation of Hawthorne's writing. He is particularly concerned about the radical change of direction that Hawthorne takes in altering the initial course of his story by adding an unexpected ending. The ending, as presented to the reader in the last three chapters, undermines the notion of emancipation Hawthorne had developed throughout the story. Loving argues that Hawthorne withheld in this way a significant piece of information which would have enlightened the reader about Hawthorne’s true self: â€Å"The author’s last minute retreat from the primordial sense of himself in The Scarlet Letter may have preserved his sanity to some extent (...) but it also cost him (and us) the true ending of the novel†. (Loving, p. 23) Loving considers the novel as a highly autobiographical account in which Hawthorne unconsciously attempts to first and foremost resolve his relationship with his mother. Central to the understanding of the nature of this relationship are the recurring themes of "guilt" and "crime". The "guilt" Hawthorne suffers from is derived from the "crime" of having broken the bond with his mother by secretly getting engaged to Sophia. In the process of writing The Scarlet Letter, he uncovered his unnaturally close and dependent relationship to his mother from which his sense of guilt originally derived. Since he did not want this sense of guilt to be revealed to the reader, he added â€Å"The Customhouse† to shift the focus of the origin of his guilt onto his ancestors. According to Hawthorne, â€Å"The Customhouse† was written to increase the overall length of The Scarlet Letter. Loving however, claims â€Å"The Customhouse† to be a cover-up for Hawthorne's deep identity crisis: " He desperately needed a beginning (...) that would save him from the self he had revealed in the true text" (Loving, p.

Hyundai Case Study

Asia Paci? c Business Review Vol. 12, No. 2, 131–147, April 2006 Globalization and Employment Relations in the Korean Auto Industry: The Case of the Hyundai Motor Company in Korea, Canada and India RUSSELL D. LANSBURY*, SEUNG-HO KWON** & CHUNGSOK SUH†  *University of Sydney, **School of International Business, University of New South Wales, †  University of New South Wales ABSTRACT Examination is made of the complex interactions between globalization and employment relations as re? ected in the operations of the Hyundai Motor Company (HMC) in Korea, Canada and India.After the closure of its short-lived attempt to manufacture cars for the North American market from Canada, the HMC ‘relaunched’ its globalization strategy in India in 1998. An examination of Hyundai’s experience in both countries suggests that employment relations is likely to continue to be an evolving blend of company-speci? c policies and locally-based practices. KEY WORDS : Global ization, management, unions, employment relations, production systems, Korea, Canada, India Introduction The effects of globalization on employee relations are widely debated.One view is that globalization has created pressures for convergence between different national settings, particularly as multinational enterprises extend their manufacturing and other operations across a variety of countries. Alternatively, it is argued that at national-level institutional arrangements play an important role in creating divergence between employment relations in different countries. As a consequence, globalization is not likely to lead to universal convergence of national patterns of employee relations.A third view rejects the simple convergence/divergence dichotomy and argues that there are complex interactions between global and national (or local) forces which shape the outcome of employee relations (Lansbury, 2002). The Korean automobile industry offers an opportunity to analyse this debat e as it pursues a strategy of globalization and begins the process of expanding production beyond Korea and building plants in other parts of the world. Correspondence Address: Professor Russell Lansbury, Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.Email: r. [email  protected] usyd. edu. au 1360-2381 Print/1743-792X Online/06/020131-17 q 2006 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10. 1080/13602380500532180 132 R. D. Lansbury et al. Globalization of the Korean auto industry has occurred in a very short period of time. It began as a repair industry for vehicles released during and after the Korean War in the early 1950s. The ? rst assembly plant in 1955 had an annual capacity of 1,500 units. When the Korean government launched the ? st Five Year Economic Development Plan in 1962, it introduced the ‘Automobile Industry Protection Law’ and began to promote the auto sector as a key element in emerging Korean manufacturing industry. However, the ? edging Ko rean auto sector experienced uncertainty and ? uctuations during the 1960s. The Saenara Motor Company was established in 1962 under a technical alliance with Nissan, but due to shortage of foreign exchange went bankrupt and was taken over by the Shinjin Motor Company which was allied to Toyota.Shinjin assembled the Corona in a complete knock-down (CKD) form of production, whilst the Hyundai Motor Company began production of the Cortina in a technical alliance with Ford. The Korean government announced a ‘localization plan’ in 1970 under which the proportion of local content in passenger cars was supposed to increase from 38 per cent in 1970 to 100 per cent by 1972. However, the localization rate barely reached 50 per cent by 1972. A rapid period of growth occurred in the Korean auto industry during the period 1972– 82.The government announced ‘A Long Term Plan to Promote the Automobile Industry’ in 1974 which had three major targets: to achieve a loc alization rate of 85 per cent by 1975; a target of 80 per cent of domestic sales to be in the small car segments below engine capacity of 1500 cc; and an export target of 75,000 units by 1981. By the end of the 1970s, the Korean industry had three local producers: Hyundai, Kia (which had taken over Asia Motors) and Daewoo (which had absorbed Shinjin Motors).However, a global economic recession in late 1979 resulted in a severe excess capacity for manufactured vehicles and the Korean government announced a ‘Decree to consolidate the Automobile Industry’ in 1980. The plan required that small passenger cars would be produced solely by Hyundai and Daewoo; that Kia would concentrate on small to medium commercial vehicles; and that only buses and large trucks would be open to competition. This resulted in a substantial contraction of the industry and, by 1983, vehicle production had declined to the levels of 1979.However, production grew steadily again during the mid to late 1980s and expanded substantially in the 1990s (see Table 1). The 1980s and 1990s were a period of mass production as all three major companies built up their annual capacities and began aggressively to export Table 1. Korean automobile production and exports for selected years Production (000s) 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 Domestic Sales, % Exports, % 49 133 601 1,497 2,812 2,946 97. 5 81. 3 49. 1 73. 9 57. 0 49. 1 2. 5 18. 7 50. 9 26. 1 43. 0 50. 9Source: Korean Auto Manufacturers Association, Statistical Reports (various years). Globalization & Employment in Korea 133 Table 2. Comparison of production and sales by Korean and Japanese automotive companies for selected years (%) 1992 Korea Japan Overseas Production Domestic Production Domestic Sales Overseas Sales 3 97 Overseas Production Domestic Production Domestic Sales Overseas Sales 1995 4 96 25 75 73 27 61 39 35 65 55 45 64 36 Source: Li Song (1998) The Process of Globalization of the Korean Automobile Industry, Economics and Management Analysis, 18:1 utomobiles, particularly to North American and Europe. By the mid 1980s, more than 50 per cent of total production was exported. A comparison of production and sales by Korean and Japanese auto companies in the early to mid 1990s is shown in Table 2. In 1992, the size of the Japanese domestic market was ? ve times larger than that in Korea. During the early 1990s, however, the Japanese auto industry began to restructure in response to economic circumstances. By 1995, Japanese companies produced about 35 per cent of its global production through subsidiaries outside Japan.Their globalization strategy concentrated on expanding overseas production and coordinating components suppliers among various global production centres. In 1995, the proportion of exports to total domestic production in Korea was similar to that in Japan. Yet the globalization of the Korean auto industry focused mainly on exporting domestically produced vehicles until the mid 1990s. Altho ugh overseas production began to increase in the late 1990s, the proportion was still rather small and most production continued to take place in Korea.The duration of the globalization process among Korean auto companies has been shorter than their Japanese counterparts. The Korean auto sector adopted a similar strategy to the Japanese of entering foreign markets at the lower cost end and then moving upwards. However, in contrast to the Japanese who began by exporting to less developed countries, Korean auto companies exported ? rst to the developed economies of the European Union and North America and then to less developed countries in Asia. The Korean companies have encountered dif? ulties in developing extensive supply chains and global materials management required for a mature global production system, which have been hallmarks of the successful Japanese auto companies. Most of the important management decisions are still made in the head of? ce in Korea and relocation of com plete production systems overseas is still in the early stages. Furthermore, since the economic crisis of the late 1990s, Hyundai is the sole survivor of the three former major auto companies in Korea. Hence, the focus is on the experience of Hyundai as it seeks to ecome a global manufacturer with assembly plants in other countries. 134 R. D. Lansbury et al. Although there is an emerging literature about global automobile manufacturing by the USA, Japan and European companies, and their employee relations (see Boyer, 1998; Lewchuck et al. , 2001), little attention has been paid to Korean auto manufacturers which have also been seeking to establish an international presence (Hill and Lee, 1998; Kochan et al. , 1997; Kwon and O’Donnell, 2000). Examination is made of the experience of the Hyundai Motor Company (HMC) in establishing overseas plants, as part of its globalization strategy.It seeks to answer the question: ‘to what extent has the Hyundai Motor Company (HMC) app lied Korean approaches to employee relations, or adapted to local custom and practices in their overseas plants? ’ HMC provides an interesting case as it has embarked on a long-term strategy of becoming one of the world’s largest auto companies by expanding into new markets and establishing plants outside Korea. In order to achieve this goal, HMC has sought to develop effective and appropriate employee relations strategies for managing its employees in its overseas plants.HMC’s ? rst venture abroad was in the mid 1980s, when it established an assembly plant in Quebec, Canada. However, this was an unsuccessful operation and HMC closed the plant in 1993. HMC began operations in India in 1998 in an attempt to re-establish its credentials as a global automobile manufacturer. A major issue, which it has confronted, is the management of labour in India, where unions have been very active in seeking membership and bargaining rights in the auto industry, particularly wi th foreign-owned companies. MethodologyThe primary research approach used in this study was ethnographic, and utilized comparative case studies of employment relations policies and practices of the Hyundai Motor Company in Korea and India. Similar methodologies have been used by Frenkel (1983), Kalleberg (1990) and Oliver and Wilkinson (1989). The researchers undertook several ? eld trips to visit Hyundai’s assembly plants in Chennai (India) as well as in Seoul (Korea), over a three year period from 1999 to 2001. Interviews were conducted with managers and workers in these plants using a semi-structured interview schedule.Documentary material was also collected and analysed from the Hyundai Company in both countries in order to compare the of? cial company policies on employment relations with the prevailing practices at the plant level. Given the fact that Hyundai had closed its assembly plant in Quebec in 1993, the researchers had to rely on interviews with former employees and managers, now located elsewhere in the Hyundai Motor Company, as well as previously published accounts. Fortunately, an extensive study of the Quebec plant had been undertaken and published by Gregory Teal (1995).In his study, Teal noted that ‘while there was a managerial discourse of participation and diffusion of power [in the Quebec plant] the gap between this discourse and the real diffusion of power was such that a sizable minority of employees did not comply with managerial objectives’ (1995: p. 85). Teal’s ethnographic study of the Hyundai assembly plant in Quebec provided a rich source of comparative data for the study of the Hyundai plant in Chennai. Globalization & Employment in Korea 135 Background to the Hyundai Motor Company (HMC)The Hyundai business group is one of Korea’s oldest and most successful familyowned conglomerates known as ‘chaebol’ (Steers et al. , 1989). In 1997, the Hyundai business group had over 60 subsidiary companies, more than 200,000 employees and accounted for approximately 18 per cent of Korea’s Gross Domestic Product. In 2000, the Hyundai Motor Company (HMC) and its subsidiaries were forced to separate from the Hyundai group as a result of government policies designed to reduce the size and in? uence of the chaebols.The Hyundai conglomerate was established by its founder, Chung Ju-Yung, in 1946 as an auto repair shop. This small business expanded into a construction company in 1947 with the establishment of the Hyundai Engineering and Construction Company (HECC). During the Korean War (1950–53) with government support, the Hyundai business group expanded into a number of other areas of activity such as ship-building and heavy machinery. These are key industries which enabled Hyundai to diversify into related businesses, expand in size and maximize economies of scale and scope.The Hyundai Motor Company (HMC) began in 1968 as a complete knock down (CKD) assembler unde r an agreement with the Ford Motor Company. In 1976, HMC produced its ? rst originally-designed model, the Pony, using a low cost strategy with more than 90 per cent of its parts being sourced locally. Other new models followed and HMC entered the US market in 1986 with the competitively low-priced Excel. During the late 1980s, however, the international auto industry experienced considerable restructuring due to oversupply, excessive production capacity and intense global competition (see Womack et al. 1990). This gave rise to a number of strategic alliances between various auto companies via mergers and business partnerships. These were initiated to achieve economies of scale and to enhance the enlarged companies’ competitive positions in the international auto market. This was one reason whey HMC formed a strategic alliance with Mitsubishi in Canada. Studies of the Korean chaebol have tended to describe them as having similar characteristics to the zaibatsu in pre Second W orld War Japan: large, diversi? ed, usually family-owned and managed conglomerates (Amsden, 1989).The Japanese colonization of Korea, which lasted from the early 1900s to the end of the Second World War, resulted in the establishment of a number of institutions and practices derived from Japan and which in? uenced the way in which companies were developed and managed. The chaebol, like the zaibatsu, have used a variety of means to foster worker identi? cation with and dependence on the company (Janelli & Yim, 1993). Hyundai, for example, used the dormitory system (originally established by Japanese enterprises in the textile industry) to allow close supervision and control over predominantly young workers (Cho, 1999).This was accompanied by hiring and training schemes as well as paternalistic welfare systems to foster dependency among the workers. Most chaebol also used the ‘moral persuasion’ of the founder to elicit worker compliance by promoting the concept that the g ood of the nation was based on the company’s performance. The founder of Hyundai, Chung Ju-Yung, regularly exhorted his employees to embrace the ‘Hyundai spirit’. Independent unions were not tolerated and were banned by the government until the late 1980s (Kearney, 1991).Yet worker dissatisfaction with both the paternalism of the chaebol and authoritarianism of the state gradually built up to breaking point and contributed 136 R. D. Lansbury et al. to major industrial disputes and civil unrest resulting in the ‘democratization’ of Korea in 1987 (Choi, 1989; Ogle, 1990). Development of employment relations policies and practices at HMC were strongly in? uenced by the business partnership with the Mitsubishi Motor Company (MMC) which involved not only technical cooperation but also management development. MMC was actively involved in the design of the ? st full automobile manufacturing systems at HMC. MMC made a strategic investment in HMC equal to 10 per cent of HMC’s total capitalization. MMC also entered into an enhanced technological cooperation agreement to supply various parts such as engines, axles and chassis components. The ? rst model which HMC developed was based on the Mitsubishi Lancer. Elements of MMC’s system of labour management approach were utilized by HMC in order to enhance productivity and reduce production costs. These included quality control techniques and job design which sought to more effectively utilize workers.Professional engineers became central to the control of production operations and supervisors were given strict control over workers on the assembly-line. The human resource policies practised by HMC during its formative stage comprised two basic characteristics. First, a strict dual labour market created a division between managerial and production workers. HMC applied different selection criteria for each of these groups of employees. Second, a seniority system of promotion was d eveloped in order to strengthen the hierarchical structure of the internal labour market and to educe short-term labour turnover. Years of service was an important criteria for wage increases and promotion. As HMC expanded its production and hired more employees, however, it adopted what was termed an ‘Open Recruitment System’ (ORS) in an attempt to attract more university graduates and develop a professional management hierarchy. The ORS was also used to introduce more formal systems of recruitment for production workers which would enhance the quality of recruits to the production area. However, the dual labour market system remained and was even strengthened within HMC.Table 3 summarizes the criteria by which management and production employees were recruited. However, HMC argued that their approach to recruitment was transformed from one which relied on personal contracts or connections to one which was based on objective selection criteria. As Kwon and O’Don nell (1999; 2000) have shown, workers in HMC appeared to be more compliant than those in other parts of the Hyundai group until the mid 1980s. Part of the explanation may be the relatively secure employment conditions Table 3. Recruitment practices at the Hyundai Motor Company during the 1990s Management employeesResponsibility Target Groups Assessment Process Production employees Group planning of? ce University graduates Written exam (e. g. language skills) University degree Interviews by senior management and personnel management Personnel department at plant level High School leavers Test for relevant skills High School results Interviews by department head and personnel staff Globalization & Employment in Korea 137 at HMC, although some have argued that HMC workers witnessed the failure of strikes elsewhere and were more acquiescent about their conditions of employment (Bae, 1987).Furthermore, management in HMC and the Hyundai Heavy Industry group also used various means to opp ose the rise of an independent union movement, including physical violence, intimidation and the establishment of complaint in company unions. However, following reforms to labour legislation in the 1990s, HMC was forced to negotiate with unions over wages and conditions. The HMC trade union also became a central force in the formation of the KCTU as the national peak council for the independent trade union movement.One of the main policy responses by HMC to the emergence of a more militant workforce and trade union movement during the 1980s was the implementation of an extensive welfare system. Welfare expenditure by HMC increased from 286 billion won in 1986 to 857 billion won in 1990. Welfare bene? ts which had been limited to management were extended to production workers in the late 1980s. Various cultural programmes were organized in conjunction with training programmes and other activities in an attempt to build a ‘unitarist’ philosophy of loyalty to the ? m and reduce the anti-management sentiments of many workers. Unions made the improvement of welfare systems a major bargaining issue, particularly in the context of an inadequate state welfare system in Korea. The unions achieved the establishment of joint project teams with management to oversee a range of welfare programmes, such as the Employee Housing Construction Implementation Committee to build houses for workers. Scholarships were also obtained for children of workers by the unions in negotiation with management. Wages were the subject of vigorous negotiation between unions and management rom the late 1980s onwards. Wages at HMC increased by 20 per cent in 1987, 30 per cent in 1988 and 28 per cent in 1989 compared with only 6 per cent between 1982 and 1986. It was not only the amount of wages which were the subject of bargaining with the unions but also the wage structure at HMC. As shown in Table 4, the unions achieved increased allowances, bonuses and superannuation paid by HMC to its members. Hence unions were able to broaden the range of issues for negotiation with HMC from the late1980s and made considerable gains during the 1990s.In terms of the broad range of human resource policies and practices, however, HMC has continued to use various means in an effort to promote a convergence Table 4. The structure of remuneration at the Hyundai Motor Company during the 1990s Types of Remuneration Components Monthly wages Normal ? xed wage Other ? xed and variable allowances Performance-based pay Productivity-related pay Bonuses Superannuation Value-added remuneration Other forms of remuneration 138 R. D. Lansbury et al. Table 5. Comparison between employment relations practices adopted by the Hyundai Motor Company in the three plants in Korea, Canada and IndiaHuman resource policies and practices Korea Canada India Selection of employees based on performance-related criteria Training programmes which reinforce company norms such as loyalty and team spirit Emplo yee involvement in some aspects of decision-making at plant level Industrial relations Successful avoidance of collective agreements with unions Flexible wages system linked to productivity and/or performance criteria Internal Labour Market Arrangements High status differentiation between workers and managers at plant level Opportunities for promotion from the shop ? or to higher level positions within the plant Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes No Yes No No No Yes No Yes Yes Yes No Yes No Yes No of interests between employees and management, while seeking to maintain control and authority over the workforce. The HMC union has been able to resist some of the management’s initiatives to change wages and working conditions, but HMC continues to control the basis on which selection and training of employees is conducted and there is still a strong degree of status differentiation between management and workforce. This is re? cted in large differences between wages, bene? ts and conditions of work between HMC employees at the shop ? oor level compared with those in the ranks of management. Some key employment relations practices are set out in Table 5 and a comparison is made between those that prevail in Korea compared with plants in Canada and India. Hyundai’s Experience in Canada In cooperation with Mitsubishi, HMC opened its ? rst overseas plant in Quebec, Canada, in 1985, in order to assemble the medium-sized front wheel drive Sonata model. The objective was to pro? from HMC’s initial success in Canada in 1984, with the Pony, when HMC became the largest auto importer in the country. Sales to Canada accounted for 30 per cent of HMC’s total production that year. By establishing a presence in North America, HMC sought to boost its sales and avoid the imposition of import quotas. HMC acquired a 400 acre green? eld site near the Canadian town of Bromont in Quebec for the token payment of one Canadian dollar and received $Canadian 110 million in gr ants from the Canadian federal and provincial governments as part of HMC’s total investment of $Canadian 325 million.In addition, the Quebec Department of Labour gave a $Canadian 7. 3 million grant to HMC to assist with training the workforce over a three year period. HMC built both a paint and a press shop to increase North American content (an important criterion for exporting to the USA) as well as because of problems in gaining components from Korea due to labour problems Globalization & Employment in Korea 139 and strikes at HMC’s Ulsan plant. Yet, when the plant was ? ally closed in 1993, one of the major contributing factors was ascribed to HMC’s failure to manage successfully relations with its Canadian managers and employees (Teal, 1995). An analysis of HMC’s experience in Canada offers some useful insights into the way in which the company sought to manage its workforce in North America. This is examined in regard to two key areas: human resourc e and industrial relations policies and practices. The data on which the account Hyundai’s experience in Canada is based is from a study of the Quebec plant by Teal (1995).More information was collected from HMC employees who had worked in the Canadian plant. Human Resource Policies and Practices The hiring policy of HMC in Canada was based on selecting employees who would identify with the company and its objectives. The selection process was lengthy and complex, with candidates spending four days being interviewed, tested for hand– eye coordination and subjected to personality tests. The key selection criteria for prospective employees were that they would be willing and able to do repetitive, monotonous work on an assembly line, as well as work in a team.The company explicitly sought younger workers, around 22 years of age, with little or no experience in the auto industry. Hyundai sought to socialize new employees in a way that promoted identi? cation with the comp any. All production workers were called ‘technicians’ and each employee was referred to as a ‘member’. All company employees wore the same uniform, irrespective of whether they were managers or shop-? oor workers. There was one cafeteria and one parking lot for all Hyundai employees.There was a wide range of sports and leisure activities designed to build team spirit and company ethic among all employees. The training programmes for new employees emphasized loyalty, motivation and team spirit. Some employees were sent to Hyundai’s production centre in Ulsan, South Korea. However, the organization of team work in the Quebec plant was different from Ulsan. The work teams in Canada were less hierarchical and authoritarian than in Korea, team members were encouraged to discuss any problems and there appeared to be greater job rotation within the teams.There was also a ‘Direct Communication System’ in the Quebec plant which was not present in Ulsan. Each team elected its own representative to a departmental committee. Team representatives from each department met regularly, with management playing an observer role at most meetings. There was also a health and safety committee to which workers elected their own representatives. During 1991 there were more than 50 meetings of Direct Communication committees at which more than 400 topics were discussed. Yet management found it dif? ult to satisfy the demands and expectations among employees. In 1991 there were nearly 160 complaints by workers concerning health and safety issues, of which only 100 were resolved. Industrial Relations A major concern of HMC was to avoid unionization of the plant in Quebec. The Canadian Auto Workers Union (CAWU) devoted considerable organizational 140 R. D. Lansbury et al. and ? nancial resources to attempting to organize the plant, without success, although by the time the plant closed in 1993, the union claimed to have achieved a growing lev el of support among the workforce.While much of the emphasis by Hyundai management was on more subtle means of union avoidance, by developing strong identi? cation of workers with the company, a number of employees who were thought to be sympathetic to or organizing on behalf of the union were suspended, transferred or dismissed. The union brought cases of alleged unfair dismissal before the Quebec Government Labour Commission and was successful in achieving an out-of-court settlement for a worker who had been dismissed in 1990.However, the union did not succeed in gaining a collective bargaining agreement to cover workers at the site. One of the devices used to prevent unionization of the plant was the formation of a pro-company, anti-union committee among the employees called ‘the Silent Majority’. It was formed in 1991 to dissuade employees from joining the union. The committee distributed pamphlets which alleged that if the plant became unionized, workers would lose money in union dues and their jobs would be insecure.The committee claimed that while workers were being laid off in other Canadian plants, which were unionized, Hyundai had hired new employees, opened a press shop and provided a high degree of job security. It also charged that the union was more concerned with protecting the jobs of workers in the ‘big three’ auto plants in Ontario where it had a large membership, rather than at the Hyundai plant. But faced with the depressed economic climate in Quebec and the disappointing sales of the Hyundai Sonata in Canada and the USA, Hyundai introduced a reduced work week for all employees and ? ally shut the plant in September 1993. Internal Labour Market Arrangements Distinctions between managerial and production workers were minimized in terms of status differentials within the plant (such as dining facilities), and workers were encouraged to participate in decision-making at the level of team or work group. Yet the work it self remained organized along Taylorist principles, with a strong division of tasks and demarcations between various job functions. Workers complained that even though they were supposed to be involved in a team-based approach to management, they were subject to ‘speed-up’ and work intensi? ation without consultation. They also claimed that Hyundai actively discouraged union membership by workers and refused to engage in collective bargaining. Hence, employee involvement in decision-making was highly restricted and had little impact on the internal labour market arrangements. Yet there existed greater opportunities for promotion of workers in production and other functions to higher level positions in the Canadian plant compared with similar plants in Korea and India. Experience of Hyundai Motor Company in IndiaIn 1996, ? ve years after the closure of the Quebec plant, HMC established a 100 per cent owned subsidiary, the Hyundai Motor Company of India (HMI), Globalizati on & Employment in Korea 141 to manufacture cars in India. It represented an investment of more than US$ 450 million. Construction of a plant with the capacity to produce 120,000 passenger cars per year was completed in Chennai, Southern India, in 1999. By May 2000, the Chennai plant was producing 100,000 vehicles a year and had captured 14 per cent of the Indian market.HMI produced two models in Chennai: Santro (999 cc) and Accent (1,499 cc), both of which achieved approximately one quarter of their respective market segments during the ? rst four months of 2000. HMI began its operation in Chennai with a workforce of 1,400 operating in a one shift production system in October 1998. By January 2001, the workforce had increased to 3,000 workers and a three-shift operation. It had become one of the fastest growing auto manufacturers in India and shared the lead with Ford of India in its respective market segments. It is dif? ult to make a direct comparison between Chennai and the Queb ec plant as Chennai was larger and produced two models instead of one. Nevertheless, HMI followed some policies similar to both the Korean and Canadian plants and also implemented HR policies and practices which emphasized selection procedures and training programmes designed to ensure that new employees are strongly integrated with the organization. However, due to lower labour costs in India, there was more reliance on labour-intensive methods and less use of automation than in Canada or Korean plants.Given the lower levels of education and skill among the Indian workforce, compared with Korea or Canada, there was a much greater presence of Korean managers and technical advisers in Chennai, particularly during the ? rst year of operation. The lines of demarcation between different segments of the workforce were also greater in the Indian plant and there was a more hierarchical structure in the Indian company. Some of these practices re? ected local norms in Indian work culture and industry.The experience of the Hyundai Motor Company in India is analysed with regard to three areas: human resource policies and practices, industrial relations and the internal labour market arrangements. Human Resource Policies and Practices HMI used a variety of HR policies and procedures to align the attitudes of its employees with the corporate culture. Training programmes within HMI re? ected the paternalistic nature within the company and emphasized the development of a strong work ethic among the employees. New recruits were given two-day basic orientation training before being allocated to a speci? c department.Most of the initial work skills are taught on the production line. There followed a job rotation programme which exposed workers to other parts of the plant operations. As Chennai is a mass production plant, most of the jobs were fragmented into relatively simple, repetitive tasks and there was a highly detailed division of labour. Much of the training beyond basic skills development was used to promote employee loyalty and develop harmony at the workplace in order to avoid internal con? ict. Workers were also encouraged to participate in productivity campaigns, employee suggestion schemes and quality control systems.There was a Supervisor Development Programme to enhance the skills of ? rst line managers. At executive level, there was a Management Development Programme to improve 142 R. D. Lansbury et al. the capacity of managers to think strategically, manage their time effectively and improve work methods and quality. The majority of workers at the Chennai plant were employed at trainee level for the ? rst three years and it was anticipated that some of these would leave the company after three years (when the traineeship ended) in search of better wages and conditions.By maintaining high turnover at this level, HMI could keep wages down and retain a group of low-paid trainees who were not permitted to join unions and could provide a †˜buffer’ should demand fall and the workforce need to be quickly reduced. In effect, the trainee position was a de facto short-term contract job, although some workers did receive promotion at the end of the trainee period. Nevertheless, promotion procedures were slow and were aimed at cost minimization, although employees with exceptional performance could receive rapid promotion.In general, it could take up to 20 years or more for production workers to rise to the highest level in their employment structure. There was a system of performance appraisal which varied according to the level of the position. When applied to the non-executive groups the emphasis of the appraisal system was on behavioural criteria such as discipline, attitudes to work, cooperation, punctuality and attendance. The system led to some con? icts between production workers and management, although it was supposed to enhance competition between workers to achieve the highest performance ratings.Wages p olicy was the most critical factor in enabling HMI to achieve a ‘cost effective’ approach to labour management. HMI’s goal was to minimize labour costs while providing management with considerable ? exibility to link allowances to productivity improvements. The total wage package comprised four key elements: a base level amount, a cost of living component, house rental allowance, a ? exibility allowance and a mixture of sundry other minor components (including travel, children’s education, provident fund etc. ).There was considerable variation in the ratio of different components depending on an individual’s position in the hierarchy. Hence, the base component of total salary varied from 60 per cent for managers to 30 per cent for production workers. According to HMI, this system helped to promote employee loyalty to the company. The wages of HMI employees were adjusted annually through increments paid in April and the wage structure was reviewed ev ery three years. During 2000, HMI came under pressure from its workforce to increase wages, and a 20 per cent increase was granted to trainees and junior technicians.The wage levels for trainees and junior technical employees at HMI compared favourably with other multinational auto companies in the same area, but were superior to Indian companies in the auto components sector. However, by having the vast majority of their employees at trainee level, HMI was able to contain its wage costs. The wages and salaries differentials between executive and non-executive employees remained fairly constant over the ? rst few years of HMI’s operation in Chennai, with executives receiving approximately six times that of production workers. However, it was dif? ult to gain accurate information about senior executive salaries paid by HMI. Anecdotal evidence from HMI and other automobile producers in India suggested that the foreign-owned companies shared information about wage Globalization & Employment in Korea 143 levels and generally maintained comparability so that they were not competing against each other in this regard. Hence, the variations between multinational auto companies operating within the Chennai area were minimal. However, there were signi? cant wage differences between the component suppliers (mainly local Indian ? ms) and the foreign-owned assembly companies. Furthermore, wage levels in the Chennai area were generally lower than those in the northern industrial zones of India as they had been industrialized for less time and were still ‘catching up’ to their northern counterparts. Industrial Relations HMI has been strongly in? uenced by the experience of HMC in Korea. From the mid 1980s, with the emergence of militant unionism, HMC experienced considerable industrial con? ict at its plants in Korea. There was a great deal of external intervention in an attempt to resolve con? cts at HMC, with varying degrees of success. Experience in Ko rea conditioned attitudes among the senior managers at HMI. One of the principal reasons why HMC chose to locate its plants near Chennai in the south of India, was that unions were not as well organized as in some other parts of India. The trade union movement is well established in India and is closely linked with socialist politics. The Indian Industrial Relations Act provides a range of rights for workers and unions. The Act guarantees freedom of association and allows for multiple unions in workplaces.It also seeks to facilitate third party intervention in the workplace to resolve industrial disputes. In 2000, trade unions were organized in 24 of the 28 major car manufacturers in India, although not in foreign-owned or joint ventures, including Ford, Volvo, Toyota and HMI. There were two major strikes in the auto sector during the late 1990s. One was a strike over wages and compensation issues at the Ascot-Faridabad plant and lasted 70 days. The other was at Hindustan Motors ove r factory conditions and wages and was 30 days in duration (Bhaktavatsala, 1992). During the ? st two years of HMI’s operations in India, there were no successful organizing efforts by unions or industrial disputes at the Chennai plant. Yet, as the plant became more established and HMI’s market share and pro? tability increased, production workers increasingly raised complaints about labour intensi? cation, low wages and limited opportunities for promotion. However, as the trainee workers comprise half of the workforce at HMI, and were not permitted to join a union or participate in industrial disputes, HMI management was able to resist union pressures.Another source of tension within the Chennai plant occurred between Korean managers dispatched to India from HMC in Korea, and local Indian management. An important contributing factor related to the management style displayed by some of the Koreans which the Indians felt was unsympathetic to prevailing customs and pract ices in India. They complained that their Korean counterparts frequently communicated with each other in the Korean language which excluded Indians from the decision-making process.For their part, a number of Korean managers claimed that the Indians lacked a strong work ethic and therefore had to be more strictly supervised in order to achieve the required levels of productivity. 144 R. D. Lansbury et al. The Koreans also argued that the caste system interfered with the ef? cient operation of the plant because some Indian workers were appointed by Indian managers to positions in accordance with their caste position rather than on the basis of merit. The Indian management system was regarded as unduly paternalistic by some of the Korean managers.HMI established a Works Committee, with the objective of resolving con? icts and differences at the workplace without involving unions. The works committee comprised equal representation from both management and production workers. The Commit tee met monthly and provided a forum in which disagreements over wages and conditions could be discussed and resolved. However, in the absence of a trade union, employees had little bargaining power in regard to management and the Committee had no means of enforcing its decisions. HMI management tended to use the Committee as a means for disseminating its policies among the workforce.The Committee did not have any jurisdiction to set wages or working conditions. While HMI has remained union-free and had not experienced any major industrial dispute, strikes occurred among component suppliers which were Korean joint ventures with HMI, including Donghee, Pyungbuang, Hwasung and Samrib. The disputes concerned wages, job security and welfare issues. The strikes had adverse effects on HMI’s production ef? ciency as many of the companies had a monopoly supplier relationship with HMI. The resolution of these disputes often required direct intervention by HMI. Internal Labour Market A rrangementsFrom the initial establishment of the Chennai plant, HMI adopted a dual internal labour market, which differentiated between managerial and production employees in relation to wages, promotion and welfare facilities. Initially, there were two classes of employees: executive and non-executive. In the executive group there were 11 categories while in the non-executive group there were 14 positions. Within the ? rst year of production, however, the total number of employees increased from 1,503 to 2,320 and there was pressure from the workforce to provide greater wage differentials based on quali? ations. Accordingly, the number of categories in the non-executive ranks was increased from 14 to 18 and two new classi? cations of junior engineer were introduced. The expansion in the number of layers within the non-executive group reduced some of the discontent about the limited status differentials in the organizational hierarchy. However, HMI placed restrictions on the number of promotions of workers to higher level categories. This is an important factor in the management of labour within the plant because, as mentioned previously, trainees have only temporary employment status for the ? st three years and are not permitted to join unions. Hence, their opportunities to gain advancement are limited. During the ? rst year of operation, almost all senior decision-making positions at HMI were held by Koreans dispatched from HMC. The Korean managers not only were heads of division, with responsibility for all key activities in HMI, but also some were placed at operational level to provide support and advice to middle level Indian managers and to coordinate management activities.As the number Globalization & Employment in Korea 145 of total employees increased during the ? rst two years of operation, the ratio of Koreans to Indians in the plant changed from 1:19 to 1:46. However, most key roles remained under the control of Koreans. In the production division , the ratio of Koreans to Indians underwent more signi? cant change, from a ratio of 1:26 in 1998 to 1:172 in 2000. This was in keeping with HMI’s policy of becoming less reliant on Korean managers at plant level. DiscussionThe comparison of HMC’s operations in three countries demonstrates that there are complex interactions between globalization pressures towards a uniform approach to employment relations across various countries and divergent tendencies at the local level in each country. Although HMC sought to carefully select employers at its plant in Canada who would identify with the company’s objectives and follow its procedures, the Canadian workers were willing to challenge management decisions and to exercise their rights on issues such as health and safety.This was despite the fact that the Canadian Auto Workers Union was unsuccessful in gaining collective bargaining coverage of the Bromont plant. Although HMC were able to remain non-union, they had a divided workforce and were not able to implement the full range of Hyundai-style human resource policies and practices as planned. Although the closure of the Canadian operation was primarily due to disappointing sales of the Sonata model, poor employee relations were also a contributing factor to Hyundai’s failure in Canada.The Indian operations marked an important attempt by Hyundai to relaunch its globalization strategy and demonstrate that it could successfully manufacture and sell overseas-made Hyundai vehicles outside Korea. The employee relations practices which Hyundai implemented in India were more like ‘traditional’ Korean approaches and appeared to represent a ‘retreat’ from some of the more ‘progressive’ ideas which were attempted in Canada – such as a ? atter hierarchical structure and greater employee participation in decision-making (albeit limited in scope).But the Indian plant was more labour intensive and had lo wer labour costs, which is similar to the earlier stages of auto production in Korea. Unlike the current situation in Korea, where HMC is required to negotiate with the union movement (due to both its organizational strength and changes in legislation), Hyundai has so far been able to avoid unionization in India. It remains to be seen whether the widespread nature of unionization in the Indian auto industry and political pressures in India may force Hyundai to abandon its policy of union avoidance.An alternative strategy, pursued by some other foreign auto companies in India has been to recognize or foster enterprise unions, which may be more cooperative than industry-wide unions. Implications As has been noted in other studies of auto companies, which established transplants outside their home country, there is a strong tendency towards ‘hybridization’ both in terms of production methods as well as employment relations. This has been observed in the case of Japanese co mpanies which have 146 R. D. Lansbury et al. established plants in the United States (see Cutcher-Gershenfeld et al. 1998), but it has also occurred with US auto companies in Canada (Lewchuck et al. , 2001) and European auto companies which have opened plants in other parts of the world (see Boyer et al. , 1998). It would appear, from the current study, that a similar tendency is occurring within the Hyundai Motor Company as they seek to re-start their overseas production activities in India. A more diversi? ed employee relations strategy, which takes into account the demands of local employees and their unions, may be required if Hyundai is to continue to develop an effective global production system.For its global ambitions to be realized, Hyundai will require a much greater proportion of its manufacturing to be undertaken outside Korea, the development of global supply chains and global coordination of production, marketing and technology development. The experience of Hyundai in Canada and India suggests that employee relations are likely to be an evolving blend of company-speci? c policies and locally-based practices, depending on the context in which Hyundai is operating. ConclusionsThe experience of the Hyundai Motor Company in India illustrates the complexity of the impact of globalization strategies on employment relations. It supports the hypothesis that there are dynamic interactions between global and local forces, which shape employment relations when a multinational enterprise establishes a production facility in a country outside its home base. Hyundai has applied some of its human resources policies from Korea to India, such as training programmes to reinforce employee loyalty to the company, but it has provided fewer opportunities for employees to be promoted from the shop ? or to higher-level positions within the plant. This has caused resentment among some of the Indian employees who feel that they have limited career prospects in the compan y. Hyundai has also successfully avoided unionization despite the fact that unions have collective agreements with most local automobile producers in India. It remains to be seen whether the Indian unions will be able to apply pressure successfully to the company to bargain collectively or persuade the government to require Hyundai to negotiate with the union over the wages and conditions of its employees.Acknowledgements The authors wish to acknowledge the Australian Research Council (ARC) for their award of an ARC Discovery Grant for this research project and the helpful comments of the reviewers and editors. References Amsden, A. (1989) Asia’s Next Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization (New York: Oxford University Press). Bae, K. H. (1987) Automobile Workers in Korea (Seoul: Seoul National University Press). Bhaktavatsala, R. C. 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